How Bangladesh is affected by flooding

Flooding is a huge problem for the people in Bangladesh and the problems continue to have negative and positive effects on the people, property and land/environment. The negatives of flooding; There are many different types of floods that Bangladesh suffers from and these are; flash floods; where there is an extreme amount of rainfall effecting both upland areas and over time low land areas. This type of flood has a huge affect on property as it can wash it away completely destroying it and also flooding crops and killing them, this type of flooding will also deposit lots of sediment so the river bed will rise making the river easier to flood. River floods are where high amounts of rain and melted snow from the Himalayas completely flood the river and also the floodplain, the water can not be contained so flows over lands which is usually not protected, this again damages crops by flooding them and also ruining the land for future use as farm land. This type of flooding will also damage or even destroy property and in extreme cases entire settlements which in turn will also kill people if they do not evacuate quick enough. Rainwater floods are where there are again extreme amounts of rainfall and there is too much surface water and land is flooded. This can kill cattle, people and destroy farmland and crops which people need for their livelihoods. For example of crop destruction, in 1987 and 1988 rice production on a country scale was largely disrupted due to extreme floods. Even if engineering is successful and floods are controlled there is the negative effects that the country gets further into debt and a lot of the flood controls do not fit in with the natural environment so is an eye sore. Methods of flood control also effect farming in certain areas as they block irrigation of water so many farmers are complaining as they are not getting the water needed to grow crops for their livelihood. The worst effected areas of flooding are the coast as many people live here and this is where flooding is most extensive, many people are killed damage to property and farm land is huge so this disrupts the local economy. In the floods of 1991 flooding was that hard that waves were 7 metres high and this brought wind speeds of 225 km/h. people had to climb trees to evade the floods but over 150 000 people were drowned and 500 000 cattle were lost along with vast damage to settlements, electricity, roads and fishing. Deforestation is another big factor that is negative as this destroys trees that are vital for the world and also does not allow interception to occur so the snow melting from the Himalayas is coming directly to Bangladesh with nothing sopping it. As there is little knowledge and little communication available people can not prepare and are defenceless. With the vast amounts of chemicals and diseases in the Ganges, flooding just spreads this all around the country contaminating drinking water and brings huge problems that need huge amount of medical care so calls for the worlds charities to help. You can read also Waves There are very little positive effects of flooding as floods bring so much destruction. The positives though are; due to vast amounts of deposition the silt that is deposited is high in fertility so ‘repairs' the soil so can be used in the future making it good for crops to grow in. also the vast amounts of water, when controlled can be irrigated for the crops rice and jute which require a large amount of water to grow. This in turn helps re – boost the local economy and gets the farmers back to their usual livelihood. Finally in cases of extreme flooding where the world is made aware, it can show the kindness of countries by the help they donate and the medical care made available to help restore the country to normal. Although there will always be social, economic, and humane problems with flooding the key is for the country to recover as quick as possible with the least effects and damage done to the country and its people.

Chapter 10 Sociology Race and Ethnicity Essay

– Race: people who share physical characteristics, such as skin color and facial features that are passed on through reproduction – social construction: a societal invention that labels people based on physical appearance. – Skin color, hair texture, and eye shape are examples of unequal treatment – Ethnic Group: a group of people who identify with a common national origin or cultural heritage that includes language, geographic roots, food, customs, traditions, and/or religion. – Puerto Ricans, Chinese, Serbs, Arabs, Swedes, Hungarians, Jews – Racial-Ethnic Group: people who have distinctive physical and cultural characteristics. Immigrants – Illegal immigrants do the jobs that most Americans don’t want like clean homes and offices, nannies and busboys, nurses’ aides, and pick fruit for low wage Dominant and Minority Groups: – Dominant Group: any physically or culturally distinctive group that has most economic and political power, the greatest privileges, and the highest social status. – Men are dominant group because they have more status, resources, and power than women. – Apartheid: a formal system of racial segregation – Minority: a group of people who may be subject to differential and unequal treatment because of their physical, cultural, and other characteristics such as sex, sexual orientation, religion, ethnicity, or skin color. – American minorities have fewer choices than dominant group members in finding homes and apartments because they are less likely to get help from a bank to help with mortgage. – Patterns of Dominant-Minority Group Relations: – Genocide: the systematic effort to kill all members of a particular ethnic, religious, political, racial, or national group. – Holocaust in Germany – Segregation: the physical and social separation of dominant and minority groups. – De Facto: informal; may be voluntary as when members of racial or ethnic groups prefer to live among their own group. Due to discrimination -De Jure: Legal; replaced by de facto – Assimilation: the process of conforming to the culture of the dominant group, adopting its language and values, and intermarrying with that group. – Mexicans are less likely to assimilate in the US than immigrants from the Philippines, Vietnam or South Korea because they are more likely to have entered the country illegally which cuts them from getting a good job, most public assistance programs, and eventual citizenship – Pluralism: minority groups retain their culture but have equal social standing in a society. – The US is pluralistic because it is multicultural, multicolored, and multilingual. Also, the US has most racial and ethnic communities (â€Å"Little Italy†, â€Å"Greek Town†, â€Å"Little Korea†, â€Å"Spanish Harlem†) live peacefully side by side Some Sources of Racial-Ethnic Friction. – Racism: a set of beliefs that one’s own racial group is naturally superior to other groups. – Prejudice: an attitude, positive or negative, toward people because of their membership. – Different from us in race, ethnicity, or religion. Asians are really hard workers; White people can’t be trusted – Stereotype: an oversimplified exaggerated generalization about a category of people. – Can be positive; All African Americans are athletic – Can be negative; All African Americans are lazy – Ethnocentrism: the belief that one’s own culture, society, or group is inherently superior to others. – Reject those outside of our group. – Scapegoats: individuals or groups whom people blame for their own problems or shortcomings. – They didn’t hire me because the company wants blacks; I didn’t get into that college because Asian Americans are at the top of the list Minorities are scapegoating targets because they differ in physical appearance and too powerless to strike back. – Stereotypes, ethnocentrism, and scapegoating are attitudes, but lead to discrimination. – Discrimination: any act that treats people unequally or unfairly because of their group membership. – Range from social slights (not inviting a co worker to lunch) to rejection of job application and hate crimes. – Can be subtle (not sitting next to someone) or blatant (racial slurs) – Individual Discrimination: harmful action on a one-to-one basis by a member of a dominant group against a member of a minority group. – Discrimination while eating in restaurants, shopping, buying house, applying for job, etc. – Institutional Discrimination: unequal treatment and opportunities that members of minority groups experience as a result of the everyday operations of a society’s law, rules, policies, practices, and customs. – Heath services; minorities get lower quality care than white people even when treated by the same doctor. – Relationship between Prejudice and Discrimination: – Robert Merton described the relationship between prejudice and discrimination as 4 patterns; 1. Unprejudiced Nondiscriminators: â€Å"All-weather liberals† They aren’t prejudiced and don’t discriminate; they believe in the American creed of freedom 2. Prejudiced Discriminators: â€Å"Active Bigots† They are prejudiced and do discriminate. They are willing to break laws to express beliefs 3. Unprejudiced Discriminators: â€Å"Fair-weather liberals† ; They aren’t prejudiced but they discriminate because its in their own self interest to do so 4. Prejudiced Nondiscrimination: â€Å"Timid Bigots† They are prejudiced but don’t discriminate. Major Racial and Ethnic Groups in the US – European Americans: immigrants from southern and eastern Europe; they viewed newcomers as dirty, lazy, and uncivilized because they differ in language, religion and customs. – Latinos: many Latinos who were professionals in their native land only find low-income jobs in the US. They often have a hard time to both work and learn English well enough to pass exams to become doctors, lawyers, and accountants. Many are successful though. Earn better hourly wages because they are older, better educated, and more likely to be employed in construction than agriculture. – African Americans: They are successful. A third of all black households earn incomes of $50,000 or more. – Asian Americans: the most successful Asian Americans are those who speak English relatively well and have high education levels. Have higher educational levels than any other US racial-ethnic groups. Most likely to be concentrated in highly skilled occupations like information technology, science, engineering, and medicine. – American Indians: they are not immigrants, they have been in the US longer than any other group. They have made considerable economic progress by insisting on self- determination and the rights of tribes to run their own affairs. Most of them work in construction and repair, maintenance, and personal and laundry services. – Middle Eastern Americans: one of the most diverse and complex combinations of geographic, historical, religious, linguistic, and even racial places on Earth. Tend to be better educated and wealthier than other Americans. Well integrated into American life. Three of four speak only English at home or speak it well and more than half are homeowners. Sociological Explanations of Racial-Ethnic Inequality – Functionalism: (macro) Prejudice and Discrimination can be dysfunctional, but they provide benefits for dominant groups and stabilize society. – Conflict: (macro) Powerful groups maintain their advantages and perpetuate racial-ethnic inequality primarily through economic exploitation – Primary Labor Market: held primarily by white workers, provide better wages, health and pension benefits, and some measure of job security. – Secondary Labor Market: (fast-food employees) are largely minorities and easily paid, their wages are low, there are a few benefits and working conditions are poor. – Feminist: (macro and micro) Minority women suffer from the combined effects of racism and sexism. – Gendered Racism: the overlapping and cumulative effects of inequality due to racism and sexism. – Symbolic Interactionism: (micro) Hostile attitudes toward minorities, which are learned, can be reduced through cooperative interracial and interethnic contacts. – Attitudes toward dominant and minority groups through labeling and selective perception can increase prejudice and discrimination. – Contact Hypothesis: the idea that more people get to know members of a minority group personally, the less likely they are to be prejudiced against that group Interracial and Interethnic Relationships: – Miscegenation: marriage or sexual relations between a man and a woman of different races. – The increase in intermarriage reflects many interrelated factors both macro and micro that include everyday contact and changing attitudes.

Clinical Trials Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Clinical Trials - Essay Example Schedule 1 (Regulation 2[1]) Part 1 of the Regulations specifies the application and interpretation of the conditions and principles of Good Clinical Practice (GCP) and also refers to the Declaration of Helsinki adopted by the World Medical Association (WMA) in June 1964. Part 2 of this schedule in the Regulation states the principles and conditions that apply to all clinical trials and that are based on the principles of ICH GCP, whilst Part 5 specifies the conditions and principles which apply in relation to an incapacitated adult (Statutory Instrument 2004). "A process by which a subject voluntarily confirms his or her willingness to participate in a particular trial, after having been informed of all aspects of the trial that are relevant to the subject's decision to participate. Informed consent is documented by means of a written, signed, and dated informed consent form." As the patients will be unconscious in this trial they will be considered to be physically incapacitated adults under the governing Regulations, and therefore unable to give informed consent. First of all informed consent in this group of subjects can only be considered if the subjects are able to benefit from research that can improve their condition.

Follow the attachment and answer each question in it Essay

Follow the attachment and answer each question in it - Essay Example The literal image was a high resolution photograph taken from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website. The factorial design type allowed the independent variables to be manipulated between four different groups of college aged adults at a public University within the United States. The purposes of this research were to advance knowledge on design elements which further enhance the effectiveness and influence of printed education materials. The research hypothesis was that the motivational force of printed education materials would be increased through consistently assigning agency to the virus; meaning that human passivity would make readers consider the virus a predator seeking out potential targets. It was hypothesized that this would heighten the health threat of the virus and perceived susceptibility to the threat. In order to achieve a high level of experimental control in this research study participants were assigned to one of four conditions and in each condition participants received a single page of printed education material that was related. The single page fact sheet was distributed along with a questionnaire. The readability levels of the human and flu agency versions were calculated using five different formulas from an online score tool and the average grade levels for readability were 8.2 and 8.6 ensuring that readability was similar across the groups. Thirteen semantic differential items were used to determine the participants perception of the credibility of the fact sheets. A memory based manipulation check was incorporated with five questions concerning what the participants had read specifically as an index of the participants sensitivity to the linguistic language manipulation. Seven Likert type items assessed participants perceptions of their susceptibility to the virus, H1N1 and their perceptions of the vaccine; their affective

Antigone Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Antigone - Essay Example While one brother was buried with all honors, the other was left to rot in the sun under punishment of King Creon if any should attempt burial procedures. Antigone, outraged at the dishonor shown her family regardless of the outside circumstances, also expresses her deep-seated belief that it is against the wishes of the gods to leave any of their subjects unburied. Meanwhile, King Creon issued the order regarding the brothers’ remains as a means of showing his extreme loyalty to the state and demonstrating his suitability to be king. This conflict between King Creon showing loyalty to the state and Antigone showing loyalty to family and to the gods highlights two of the most important issues facing the Greeks but ultimately Sophicles supports the concept that it is family and adherence to the rules of the gods that are most important in life in Antigone’s marginal victory over Creon in death. Antigone enters the first scene of the play already in a rage after learning that the new king, Creon, has forbidden to allow one of her brothers to be buried, introducing the central conflict of the play immediately. She decides to go against the king’s orders, arguing that burying the dead is the right thing to do. â€Å"Antigone, driven by family duty and love, cannot but fight against Creon’s decision.† (Lathan, 2002). Her pride in family makes it impossible for her to drop the issue and her stubborn determination to abide by what she feels is right makes it impossible for her to approach the issue in any way other than head-on. It is clear she’s outraged that the king would tell her what to do when she is talking to her sister at the very beginning of the play: â€Å"What’s this they’re saying now, / something our general has had proclaimed / throughout the city? Do you know of it? / †¦ / Dishonours which better fit our enemies / are now being piled up on the ones we love† (Johnston,

How have attitudes in modern society changed in order to include Essay

How have attitudes in modern society changed in order to include people with Sen and disability - Essay Example Parents do not have adequate information on how to treat their kids, type of schools to take them, plus what to expect in their children (Burton 1996, p.33). For example, the city of Southampton has developed a way of helping children with Sen i.e. through early identification and intervention, improving the experience of the children and their families through clear and definite accessible information about services offered and also through building capacity through partnerships with other organizations. The local authority launched the Jigsaw service which brings about all health specialists and social care services for young people with learning disabilities under a single management. Services offered include; broadening the eligibility form to accommodate the child’s disability in the context of their family problem; strong focus on early child intervention and integrated working criteria between nurses and the social workers so that the kids will learn through a single well developed and integrated process (Burton 1996, p.27). There has been a strong focus on early identification, intervention and building capacities through strong established partnerships, with academic institutions to raise the levels and achievements of people with Sen. There are programs to support Sen Kids in schools. A lot of given work been conducted to improve the accessibility and number of information regarding the services and activities for the families of children with disabilities (Burton 1996, p.55). Disabled children like all other children experience bullying. These include; verbal abuse that can lead to their perceived impairment; physical violence particularly against children with physical disabilities; threats and intimidation; exclusion and isolation from their peer groups; manipulation and false friendships. Repeated bullying, which had not, been responded to have led the disabled kids to developing a negative self identity concerning their disability. Some kids have developed individualized responses in regards to b ullying. They feel that they should alienate themselves entirely from certain situations adapting their own behaviors’ (Burton 1996, p.66). Most of these kids fear reporting bullying when it happens due to the fear of retaliation, the teachers not believing them particularly amongst children suffering from Autistic Spectrum Disorder. Also, when these kids reported bullying to their teachers, they report often that the teachers never listen to them (Sally & Marian 1999, p.100). In order to prevent bullying, disabled kids believe that awareness should be created among other kids in order to understand and value disability. This should include disability awareness, equality trainings and vocations, lessons for teachers, students and even the staff to display positive picture of disability throughout the school. The disabled kids feel that these would develop their confidence and enable them build a positive self esteem and awareness of their rights of not to be bullied. Disabled children need to be understood. The staff and teachers should develop a positive and supportive relationship with the disabled kids (Burton 1996, p.82). The major discrimination that people with disabilities face is social discrimination. This often becomes

Martha Stewart Fraud Case Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Martha Stewart Fraud Case - Essay Example The lucrative career of Martha Stewart includes caterer, business owner, home living expert and stockbroker. Martha Stewart Living Omni media can be considered as her success story which has turned from a catering business to a popular and well-recognized brand. According to an author, â€Å"To the degree that her business partners were prepared to help advance the success of Martha Stewart, she was prepared to work with them. To the degree that they got in her way, she was willing to roll right over them† (Daniels Ethics1 2). Peter Bacanovic was the stockbroker of Martha Stewart. She along with her stockbroker has been indicted for â€Å"making false statements and conspiracy to obstruct justice† (Reynolds 1). The Insider trading scandal threatened the career of Martha Stewart’s career. The scandal took place due to the association with the ImClone System. It is a biopharmaceutical company. Martha Stewart owned the stock of this company. However, the FDA refused to review the cancer drug Erbitux of ImClone system. It tumbled the stocks of the company. However, same thing occurred with the insiders of ImClone. Martha Stewart was the potential stock owner. She was one of the closest friends of CEO of the ImClone. However, she gave instruction to his broker to transfer the money invested in stock to the bank account of his daughter. Peter Bacanovic was also the broker of the CEO of ImClone, Mr. Sam Waksal. However, his daughter also has requested the broker to sell her stock capital. The CEO of ImClone was arrested due to obstruction of justice, bank fraud and insider trading. He was sentenced to seven years of jail. However, he got released after the five years of jail term.  

Discuss strategies adopted by the President to improve U.S. relations Essay

Discuss strategies adopted by the President to improve U.S. relations with Iran - Essay Example Nuclear weapons have been banned in wars and only those countries that had nuclear weapons by the time of the ban in the 1960s have been allowed to keep them. These are five in number. Further, these five countries have been urged to reduce their missile heads in a wave of reducing risks of nuclear attacks. Although manufacturing of nuclear weapons goes against international treaties thus illegal, Iran has been accused of having ambitions of creating nuclear weapons. The Obama administration has been very vocal in their effort to ensure Iran does not engage in such activities. President Obama has offered to negotiate directly with Iran in an effort to improve the US relation with the Arab countries. He visited Cairo, Egypt in 2009 and expressed his willingness to work together with countries with similar visions as the US in maintaining peace. He recognized both the Israel and Palestine states and stressed the need for these nations to co-exist together. Iran’s president, Ahmedinejad has been vocal in the opposition of the creation of the Israel nation citing that Israel should be wiped off the world map. The stern and provocative comments have always jeopardized negotiation talks between the US and Iran as Israel wants to be part of the negotiations with both Israel and Iran having hard-line stands. In a negotiation meeting in 2009 held in Geneva, involving Iran and six global powers, President Obama was very critical to point out after the meeting that Iran must not use negotiations as delay tactics for it to further its nuclear ambitions. In the meeting, Iran pledged to let UN inspectors to inspect its suspected enrichment programs in return for Iran to be allowed to pursue peaceful nuclear research. Although the US and Iran have engaged in other talks like discussing the war in Afghanistan, the nuclear saga continues to be the main area of focus (Wolf, 2009). During the held negotiations, various diplomatic negotiation rules have been broken. Hard line

Scenario Theft from vehicle Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Scenario Theft from vehicle - Essay Example What we are most interested in is that you can demonstrate an understanding of all relevant legislation Policy and Procedures in relation to each scenario and event. Event 1: Local intelligence has alerted an officer on patrol to a spate of thefts from vehicles in a local car park- the Modus Operandi (MO) being to smash one of the side windows of the vehicle to gain entry. Example answer: Based on the information provided so far this could be a crime or non-crime incident. Potential crimes could be theft (Theft Act, Sec 1-7, 1968) or Criminal Damage (Criminal Damage Act, Sec 1, 1971). Under the Equality Act 2010, the officer should not victimise the suspect because of gender or race. According to section 1 of PACE, officer may search a person or vehicle without warrant if suspected. However the officer needs to show his identity and to inform the suspect the grounds for searching. Section 1 of the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 allows an officer to search a person or premises. The officer may search and arrest if finds someone suspect, committing an offence or who is guilty of any offence. But the officer must have reasonable grounds for any such search. Q3 Describe any personal, physical or impact risks that may be present and any contingencies the police officer could consider in conducting the search in terms of their own safety, the police service and the community. Q4 Describe the application of relevant legislation, service requirements, national guidelines and personal responsibilities (including level of training and duty of care) that relate to managing conflict Within your answer you should consider how the items found may be related to any potential offences. With consideration to the items found and information to hand discuss options available to the officer to deal with the suspect. The officer should record

Legal regulation of the sex work Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Legal regulation of the sex work - Essay Example Against the background of the heritage of Canadian laws on prostitution or sex working, this essay discusses how prostitution laws in Canada currently stand and takes into consideration law enforcement patterns, as well as the non-enforcement patterns. It also discuss what or who is being controlled by sex working laws and their enforcement. The history of lawful regulation of sex working in Canada is one of the countrys intervention to try and bring to a stop prostitution under public annoyance provisions in and attempts to utilize the Contagious Diseases Act in Canada in the 1870s, as well as the 1880s (Moscucci, 2012). From about 1910, every Canadian state began using criminal laws on sex working, wherein the act of sex working itself is not an illegal act, but various prostitution-related events are considered illegal. These regulations are mostly based on Canadian laws on barring under-aged individuals on areas used by prostitutes, soliciting, brothel keeping and renting rooms to prostitutes (Moscucci, 2012). The legacy of Canadian law borrowed four notable elements from English law on prostitution. First was the stress on regulation of prostitution under the appearance of public nuisance regulations or the avoidance of annoyance. Under the Criminal Code, it is illegal for a sex worker to publicly importune or solicit with an aim of selling themselves to others and also under the Canadian 1959 Street Offenses dictated that prostitutes are likely to create annoyance or disturbance simply because of their presence, even if no one is annoyed (Moscucci, 2012). Secondly, the critical phrase, common prostitute that applies to women alone, initially appeared in the 1822 English Vagrancy Act and was later incorporated into Canadian law concerning sex working. The effect is that law enforcement officers can overlook a number of formalities in order to arrest common sex workers (Moscucci, 2012). Thirdly, the 1864 Contagious

Persuasive speeches Essay Example for Free

Persuasive speeches Essay In order to begin this piece of work we looked at persuasive speeches in our lessons. These speeches were from famous people, such as Hitler and Tony Blair. However, my personal inspiration came from a speech from Diana Princess Of Wales, entitled, Women and children with aids. This acted as a style model for my final piece and gave me the basis for my ideas. As well as this it helped in my planning, as I could see which techniques were the most effective and how to craft the piece for maximum effect. My original idea was to write a persuasive speech about the very serious issue of poverty. However, I found it difficult to write a long enough speech to fit into the word count. I therefore changed my idea to writing a persuasive article and this is my final piece. The genre of this article is to persuade and it is written for an adult audience. The intention; to persuade, is brought across very well as many persuasive techniques are employed. Rhetorical questions, How will she live with no food? are used to make the reader reflect and ask themselves questions. Moreover, facts and figures, 9. 5 million , use of imperative, we must. , repetition, reference to expert studies and emotive language are used to persuade the reader further. The tone of the article is serious and reflective, however it is clear and to the point. This helps the purpose of the piece come across more clearly. The intended effect on the audience is reached as it stimulates the reader to reflect on themselves and other people, gently persuading the reader unconsciously. The structure of the article is clearly set out with a strong opening and ending. There is more descriptive language in the middle of the article as well as facts and figures used to back up statements. This makes the piece simple to read but effective at the same time. The lexis which is used is more challenging for the selected audience, acknowledge, desperation, judgemental. The lexis would be much more simple compared to an article for a child. The idea of helping the dark shadow of poverty fade and reaching the light at the end of the tunnel are used as figurative language features. This was also used as emotive language to stimulate the audience and their emotions. The successful aspects of this article include the lexis, which I have chosen to complement the genre, the shaping of the writing to the selected audience, as well as the purpose. The pictures help the graphology of the article to come across and shows the reader real life images, helping them to picture the situation and feelings of those in poverty. Moreover, the facts and figures are used to back up statements and provide the reader with realistic, additional information. This keeps the reader interested and aware that the truth is being told. The contrasts between facts and descriptive emotive language are also successful as it breaks up the information and does not over load the reader. The ways to improve the article are to use more imperatives, e. g. we must we can. This will help the audience become more involved and feel as though they can actually help. As well as this, more usage of metaphors, similes and other language features could be used to make the article more interesting. Personal opinions could be used to persuade the reader even more or more than one point of view could be adopted to give the reader freedom of choice.

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Planning Process

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Planning Process CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is 20 year old tool for environmental management, not living up to its full potential. (Mudge, 1993). This chapter describes the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) planning process as conventionally depicted in subsequent EIA texts and guidelines. EIA characteristics and objectives are first presented because EIA planning process characterisations are interdependent with assumed EIA characteristics and objectives. Following the depictions of EIA characteristics, EIA objectives and the EIA planning process vary greatly from source to source. These variations are more the result of the varying perspectives of different authors than clearly defined schools of thought. Although, there has been a pro- process of evaluation over the past two decades, there also are many instances where elements suggested in earlier works have not been incorporated into most recent portrayals. This overview of the conventional EIA planning process is a point of departure for the modifications and refinements discussed in later chapters of this research. Also, the conventional portrayals of EIA characteristics, EIA objectives and the EIA planning process will be revisited in later chapters, taking account of combined implications. The following are EIA characteristics as commonly depicted in introductory EIA literature and guidelines; As a field of study EIA draws upon many social and natural science disciplines (Jain, Urban and Stacey, 1977). Drawing upon diverse disciplines is necessary to understand the significant aspects of the environment in order to predict how those environmental attributes may change over time with and without a proposed action; Boundaries between, and links to both traditional disciplines and to other transdisciplinary and transprofessional fields such as planning (Lawrence 1992). EIA must transcend individual disciplines if a holistic image of the environment with and without a proposed action(s), is to be presented. Hence, EIA should not be viewed as a transdisciplinary field. EIA consist of structural approaches and set of procedures in order to ensure that environmental factors are considered in planning and decision making (Clark1981a). In this regard EIA is a normative procedure that seeks to identify natural and social environmental norms or ethical standards and to infuse these into planning and decision making. In the definition of Environmental Impact Assessment, the impact element is often prefaced by one or more dimensional distinctions, such as; positive and negative (Mitchell and Takheim 1977; Rau and Wooten 1980); time ( short term, long term, frequency, duration); space (on-site, off-site); direct and indirect, quantitative and qualitative; individual and cumulative; and likelihood of occurrence (Rau and Wooten 1980). While the assessment component of EIA includes analysis synthesis and management- Analysis involves data collection and compilation, the identification of likely environmental conditions and interactions among environmental conditions and systems (Mm 1979; Munro et. al 1986; Amour 1990; Erickson 1994) und the description, measurement and prediction of likely effects and interactions among effects. Synthesis includes the interpretation of the significance of affects and interactions among them (Munn 1979; CEARC l988b) and the aggregation and evaluation of individual and cumulative effects (Cumulative Environmental Assessment CEA) both with and without mitigation (Westman 1985; Lang and Annour 1981; Armour 1990; Erickscm 1 994; Shoanaka 1994). Management includes mitigation (Jain, Urban and Stacey 1977) compensation and local benefits (Amour 1990), the management of residual impacts (CEARC 1988b), monitoring and contingency measures, and communications/ consultation activities (CEARC 1988b). In summary, EIA is a process that identifies, predicts, evaluates and manages the potential (or real) impacts of proposed (or existing) human activities on both the human and natural environment. The EIA planning process includes analysis, synthesis, management, communications and consultation activities. The consequences of such activities and their alternatives will result in specific impacts. Underlying EIA practice are usually implicating application assumptions. Formal or informal institutional mechanisms are, for example, anticipated to be in place to help to compel, or at least facilitate public or private proponents to initiate and complete an EIA planning process and the necessary documentation, as a perquisite to project approval. Along with perquisite methods it is expected that a systematic planning process can be devised or adapted for analysing and synthesizing the appropriate data and for involving relevant agencies and the public. Further assumed that: there is appropriate expertise to tackle the necessary technical work and to review whatever the outcomes of the planning process; there is a basis for choosing among alternative plans and for deciding if an undertaking should or should not proceed; the people who make the decision will rationally use the information provided to guide their actions; the requirements for approvals can be enforced and the impacts managed if unforeseen impacts occur; the contingency measures can be instituted. These application assumptions have been increasingly challenged in the EIA literature and in decision of courts and hearing panels and boards. The expectation that knowledge and expertise are sufficient may be especially dubious in situations characterised by emerging technologies, poorly understood environments and complex inter relationships within and among proposed actions and components of the environment. The extension of EIA from the conceptual to the applied pre-supposes that EIA must also be a transprofessional field of practice, EIA comprises of a core body of knowledge, skills and methods. Social and natural sciences provide the initial knowledge base- EIA seeks to integrate and, thereby transcend, the inputs and insights of a range of professions with expertise m the proposed action, the environment and their interactions, within a public policy setting. Frameworks, procedures and methods have been formulated and refined through practice, which over the years, has resulted in the emergence of EIA as a recognized area of expertise. EIA is a planning tool (Bisset 1983; Clark l9Ã »3a; Smith 1993). It is a form of applied policy analysis or more specifically, a form of resource management and environmental planning (Smith 1993). Consequently, the formulations and applications of environmental planning processes is one aspect of EIA. It, therefore, tends to be assumed that the EIA planning process should be anticipatory (prior to decision-making), systematic or orderly and rational. The results and conclusions from the EIA planning process should also be documented, generally in the form of an EIA report or statement. EIA is a generic planning process intended to contribute environmental information to decision-making. It provides a regulatory basis for forcing the explicit consideration of environment concerns by public and private decision makers. As such EIA forms a part of the institutional fabric through legislation, public policy or administrative procedures. Institutionalisation requires mechanisms to prepare, review and document the process, to coordinate inter-agency and private/public interactions, to adjudicate disputes and to monitor and enforce compliance. This dissertation therefore takes up this theme to investigate the effectiveness of EIA in the Skye Bridge project by considering the planning process and by using literature review as a means of analysis and research. CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW On July 3, 1988, European Union (EU) Directive 85/337/EEC (Directive) came into force and as a result, Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) became a part of the EUs environmental protection plans. The Directive requires that before consent is given for the development of certain public and private projects that are likely to have significant effects on the environment, an assessment of those effects must be compiled and considered by the developer and the authority in charge of approving the projects. By asking decision-making authorities to ponder likely environmental harm before the harm occurs, the Directive promotes a policy of preventing environmental harm. The comprehensive effectiveness of mandating pre-consent environmental impact assessment is undercut, however, because the Directive textually exempts national defense projects from its process. This study suggests that the European Union could and should include national defense projects in its EIA law. Part I of this Chapt er will provide a summarized, chronological evolution of environmental policy in the European Union. Part II will give a description and history of EIA law, including that of the United States, so as to provide a comparative and contrasting point of reference. Part III will propose a way by which the European Union can more fully live up to the preventative approach that it has espoused for environmental protection by requiring environmental impact assessments for national defense projects. This Chapter concludes that the inclusion of national defense projects in the EUs EIA law would broaden the scope and effectiveness of EIA law and environmental protection generally. 2.1. HISTORICAL AND LEGAL DEVELOPMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT LAW 2.1.1. The Evolution of Environmental Policy in the EU The 1957 Treaty of Rome (Treaty), which established the European Economic Community, focused on the creation of a common-trade zone. Accordingly, the Treaty failed to make any explicit statements regarding policies for environmental protection. In fact, until 1987, all EU environmental protection legislation was introduced via the general language of one or both of two Treaty articles that only implicitly recognized EU authority over environmental issues in Member States. Article 100 of the Treaty calls for the harmonization of laws affecting the common market in Member States. Article 235 authorizes measures that prove necessary to attain one of the objectives of the Community absent a specific delegation of authority by the Treaty. Although the Articles make no explicit reference to environmental issues, they have been used as authority for certain environmental regulations. For example, Article 100s allusion to issues affectin g the common market was used as the authority to develop legislation that regulated product and industry standards across the EU. On the heels of the increased environmental awareness that swept the globe in the late 1960s, the European Community initiated the European Community Action Programmes on the Environment. The first of these five-year programmes, covering the years from 1973 to 1977, established principles and priorities for future environmental policies. The second five-year programme (1977-1981) established a list of eleven principles and actions to be taken in order to move closer to the goal of environmental protection. The list included the decision-making tool of environmental impact assessment. The first two Action Programmes had a common theme of protecting human health and the environment by controlling pollution problems. The third five-year Programme (1982-1986) solidly shifted the emphasis of environmental policy from one of pollution control to one of prevention and integration of environmental issues into other European Community policies. Not surprisingly, it was during the era of the S econd and Third Action Programmes when Directive 85/337/EEC, an inherently preventative and integrating piece of legislation, was first proposed and then accepted. The Fourth Action Programme (1987-1992) continued the trend of prevention but proceeded further beyond its predecessors by stressing the importance of using stringent environmental standards in regulating the activities of Member States. The evolution of environmental policy in the EU took a crucial step on July 1, 1987 when, in conjunction with the adoption of the Fourth Action Programme, the Community adopted the Single European Act. The Act, which consisted of amendments to the Treaty of Rome, contained articles that specifically affected environmental policy. Article 100A recognized the relationship between promotion of the common market and protection of the environment by authorizing the EU to adopt environmental legislation on the basis that such issues affect the marketplace. Article 130R lays out the objectives of future Community action relating to the environment by formalizing the principles of prevention, subsidiarity, polluter pays, and most importantly, integration. Article 130T reconfirms that individual Member States may enact environmental legislation that is more stringent than, but is compatible with, that of the Community. The evolution of environmental policy in the EU from the 1957 Treaty of Rome through the various Action Programmes and to the Single European Act exemplifies the European Communitys commitment to a preventative approach to environmental protection. EIA law stands as a hallmark of that preventative approach. The EUs commitment to the comprehensive prevention of environmental degradation is tested, however, by the limitations of its own EIA law. 2.1.2. Environmental Impact Assessment Law: A Description and Comparative Study 2.1.2.1. EIA: A General Overview The essential structure of EIA law is common to all the nations that use it. Generally, EIA law is a process intended to minimize or prevent environmental damage that is usually associated with the construction and operation of certain development projects. Usually in the form of legislation, regulations and/or administrative processes, EIA law requires that certain development projects, while still in a planning stage, be analyzed in terms of their potential adverse impacts on the environment. Developers and/or governmental bodies, depending on the particularities of the EIA law in question, must conduct an analysis, or assessment, of the environmental effects of certain projects. The public authority responsible for granting or denying consent to the project is asked to take into account the results of the assessment. Again, depending on the particularities of the EIA law in question, provisions are made for public disclosure of the assessments, as well as for public involvement in the authoritys decision-making process. The EIA process plays four important roles in protecting the environment. First, EIA law gives concrete, practical effect to environmental policy language that is often broad, general and otherwise absent of specific mandates. The U.S. Congress, in formulating its declarations of environmental policy, included EIA so as to insure that the policies enunciated . . . are implemented. EIA helps to insure proper implementation of policies by requiring the formulation and submission of written assessment reports, demonstrating an affirmative compliance with the environmental concerns outlined in policy language. A second role for EIA is to provide an analytical decision-making tool that institutionalizes foresight. It asks the decision-making authority to look beyond the moment and to incorporate into its decision the possible irreversible future effects a project may have on the environment. Third, to the extent that EIA affirmatively asks developers and decision-makers to account for the social and economic costs resulting from their actions, EIA forces the internalization of those costs and consequences that might otherwise go unaccounted for. The final role that EIA plays is as a public-awareness measure. Most EIA processes allow for public disclosure of development plans, as well as for public participation in the decision-making process. In the words of Professor Nicholas Robinson, EIA facilitates democratic decision making and consensus building regarding new development. For EIA to incorporate environmental norms into decision making, it must address both environmental ethics and values and human ethics, values, perceptions, beliefs and attitudes. It is an objective procedure for identifying, measuring and predicting environmental attributes and changes brought about by existing or proposed actions, but is subjective in the interpretation, aggregation and management of those changes. Although driven by an environmental ethic, the links between EIA and ethical theory in general and environmental ethics in particular, have been tenuous at best. The tendency has been to assume that concepts and methods developed to predict and explain environmental change provide a sufficient knowledge base. The practice of EIA involves, usually implicit assumptions regarding the known environment, environmental impacts and environmental norms. It is, for example, generally assumed that aspects of the environment and their inter- relationships can be identified, described or measured and monitored; changes, with or without a proposed action can be predicted to the extent that cause-effect relationships can be established; stakeholders values can be determined; measures of impact magnitude and importance can be combined; individual and cumulative environmental consequences can be interpreted, aggregated and managed; end issues of probability of uncertainty can be managed sufficiently to decide whether a proposed action should proceed and, if so, then, in what fashion. These knowledge assumptions are questionable, especially in the subjective realm of conflicting values, perceptions and human behaviour. The primary focus of EIA was initially on the physical and natural environment and, to a lesser extent, on the socio economic consequences of physical and natural environmental changes. The environmental aspect of EIA now generally embraces both natural (physical, biological and ecological) and human (human health and well being, social, cultural, economic built) environmental components and systems (Wiesner, 1995) and their inter relationships (Jain, Urban and Stacey, 1977; Estrin and Swaigen, 1978; CEARC, 1988b). There are many opinions regarding whether social impact assessment (SIA) or socio-economic impact assessment is or should be a sub-field of EIA (Morris and Therive1, 1995). A broad definition of the environmental EIA facilitates a more comprehensive approach to environmental management but it leaves open the possibility that certain elements of the environment will not receive pertinent attention. The question of how best to integrate social, ecological and economic data and perspectives remains unresolved. Human actions alter the environment (Jain, Urban and Stacey 1977; Mitchell and Turkheim 1977). In EIA, the term impact generally refers to the accepted environmental consequences (Meredith 1991) of a proposed action or set of actions (Rau and Wooten 1980) and less frequently to the actual consequences of an existing activity. Distinctions also are often drawn between changes or effects (measures of magnitude) and impacts (measures of magnitude in combination with measures of importance), between alternations of environmental conditions or the creation of a new set of environmental conditions, and between environmental conditions changes caused or ind uced by actions (Rau and Wooten 1980). Although the traditional focus of EIA has been capital projects, EIA requirements are increasingly applied to legislative proposals, policies, programs, technologies, regulations and operational procedures (Munn 1979; Estrin and Swaigen 1978; CEARC 1988b). The expectation that the conceptual basis for EIA largely developed at a project level can be readily extended and applied to policies, programs and technologies is questionable. At the policy and program level the range of inter related choices tends to multiply, impacts tend to be more generic and less amenable to precise prediction and EIA overlaps with policy and program evaluation, planning and environmental and resource management. A distinction is sometimes drawn between project level EIA und the strategic environmental assessment (SEA) of policies, plans and programs (Sadler 1995). Risk assessment, technology assessment and environmental health impact assessment are viewed as either subfields within EIA (Sadler 1995) or as distinct fields that partially overlap with EIA in most cases EIA applies to the actions of both public and private proponents (Meredith 1991; Mitchell and Tuclcheh 1977). Alternative methods of achieving a proposed end and of managing the impacts associated with a partial choice are also usually considered in an EIA planning process. 2.1.2.2. A Comparative Study: The United States Experience with EIA The significant history of EIA law began with the passage in the United States of the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of 1969. NEPA was brought about as an instrument of policy and planning (Roberts, 1984a). Among NEPAs eloquent but broad declarations of environmental policy is a brief section mandating EIA law for certain projects, thus providing a set of teeth with which to enforce the statutes policies. Section 102(2) of the Act requires all federal agencies to prepare and include an environmental impact statement (EIS) with every recommendation or proposal for major Federal actions significantly affecting the quality of the human environment. The importance and weight of this requirement, as well as the problems inherent in defining its triggering terms, are demonstrated by the fact that the EIS clause has spawned nearly all case law brought under NEPA. Much of NEPA case law has dealt with the issue of w hether projects involving national defense and national security are subject to compliance with Section 102(2), and judicial review of such compliance. The environmental, public-awareness and military interests at stake in these cases are reflected by two questions. First, will compliance and judicial review compromise the confidentiality of matters regarding national security? Second, will compliance and judicial review compromise the ability of the military to proceed with projects, which while detrimental to the environment, are crucial to the defense of the country? In answering these questions, it is important to note that NEPA calls for EISs from all agencies of the Federal Government; the statute does not provide a textual exception for national defense or security projects. Despite the clear language of the statute, however, U.S. courts have struggled with the issue and are currently responding in a manner that runs counter to the language and true intent of NEPA. Most court decisions find that NEPA-based claims against projects involving national defense interests are justifiable. Early cases, however, were ambiguous in answering questions of whether such projects must comply with NEPA requirements and whether EISs for such projects are subject to judicial review of their legal sufficiency. For instance, in the early case of McQueary v. Laird, the Tenth Circuit Court of Appeals dealt with a NEPA challenge to a military project by claiming lack of jurisdiction. In another early case, Citizens for Reid State Park v. Laird, the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of Maine found that NEPA applies to all federal agencies, including the Department of Defense. The Court in Citizens for Reid State Park refused to require an EIS for the Navy project in question, however, because it found that the plaintiff citizens group had failed to prove that the Navy plans constituted a major project significantly affecting the environment. Later court d ecisions often allowed national defense projects to proceed without an EIS or judicial review of an EIS, not because the courts believed that such projects did not have to comply with NEPA, but merely because the courts found that major federal action or significant effects on the environmentrequirements necessary to trigger NEPA were absent. In cases where major federal actions having significant effects on the environment were found to exist, compliance with NEPA was required despite national security interests. In Committee for Nuclear Responsibility, Inc. v. Schlesinger, for example, the Supreme Court refused to issue an injunction for violation of NEPA, but the Courts rushed decision upheld a Court of Appeals finding that the Atomic Energy Commission did have a judicially reviewable duty to comply with NEPA requirements in spite of national security considerations. In Progressive Animal Welfare Society v. Department of Navy, the Western District Court of Appeals of Washington found that the Navys plan to use dolphins in a military project was a major federal action with significant environmental impact; accordingly, a NEPA EIS was required for the project. Finally, in Concerned about Trident v. Rumsfeld, the Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia found that the Navys plans for a submarine support facility requ ired compliance with NEPA to the fullest extent possible. The court found that the Navys own internal environmental impact statement was insufficient to fulfill the requirements of NEPA. In making its decision, the court, citing judicial precedent as well as NEPAs lack of a textual military exception, rejected the Navys argument that NEPA could not possibly apply to strategic military decisions. The court stated that the Navys plans were subject to NEPA requirements despite the projects serious national security implications. In 1981, the Supreme Court again addressed the issue of the militarys compliance with NEPAs EIA mandate. In Weinberger v. Catholic Action of Hawaii, the Court refused judicial review of the Department of Defenses compliance with NEPA in a matter of national security. The dispute began with the Navys plan to construct a weapons and ammunition holding facility capable of storing nuclear weapons in Ohau, Hawaii. The Navys internal assessment concluded that the fac ility would not have significant impact on the environment and as such, a NEPA EIS was unnecessary. The Navys assessment, however, failed to include an analysis of the facilitys impact on the environment should nuclear weapons actually be stored at the site. The district court that first reviewed the case found that the Navy had complied with NEPA to the fullest extent possible. The Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals reversed the decision of the district court, arguing that an EIS was necessary and feasible since it would not necessarily release confidential matters. Important to the court was the fact that the Navy had already made the nuclear capabilities of the facility public knowledge. The court went on to suggest a hypothetical approach to writing EISs that would protect national security, environmental concerns, and public disclosure interests. Judge Merrill wrote that under this hypothetical approach, the Navys EIS must evaluate the hypothetical consequences of storing nuclear weapons at the site but it need not imply that a decision to actually store nuclear weapons had been made. The court argued that since the public was already aware of the capability of the facility to store nuclear weapons, a hypothetical EIS that discussed the impact of such storage, but not whether it would actually occur, would not reveal anything the public did not already know . Further, it would allow the Navy and the decision-making authority to consider the true and potential costs and consequences of proceeding with the project. Finally, the Court stated that a hypothetical EIS would assure the public that the decision-making process had fully accounted for the projects externalities and consequences. On review, the Supreme Court reversed the Court of Appeals creative approach to balancing the interests at stake. The Court, discrediting the Ninth Circuits notion of a hypothetical EIS, refused to mandate a NEPA EIS because it believed that doing so would reveal confidential matters of national security. In the majority opinion, Justice Rehnquist outlined the current status of the law regarding military compliance with EIA law in the United States. He wrote that public policies favoring the protection of confidential information regarding national security ultimately forbids judicial scrutiny of whether or not the Navy has complied with NEPA to the fullest extent possible.' Justice Blackmun, who concurred with the judgment of the Court, was joined by Justice Brennan in stressing that although the Defense Department may disseminate EISs in a manner that protects confidential matters, it is still bound by the obligations of NEPA. 2.1.2.3. A Comparative Study: The European Unions Experience with EIA Sixteen years after NEPA took effect in the United States and after five years of consideration in the European Union, Environmental Impact Assessment law was officially incorporated into the statutory framework of the EU on June 27, 1985. Directive 85/337 mandates EIA for certain projects such as those involving crude-oil refineries, thermal and nuclear power stations, motorway construction and dangerous waste landfills. It also requires EIA to be performed in conjunction with those other projects that Member States find have a significant effect on the environment due to the projects particular characteristics. The specific legal authority for the Directive is derived from Articles 100 and 235 of the EEC Treaty. The Directive also cites to the first three Action Programmes for their policies of preventing environmental harms at the source rather then trying to counteract environmental degradation once it occurs. The procedure called for by the Directive identifies, describes and analyzes the effects a development project may have on humans, fauna, flora, soil, water, air, climate, landscape, welfare and cultural heritage. The EIA must contain a description of the project in question, an outline of the main alternatives to the project, the reason for choosing the proposed plans, a description of the significant effects the project will have on the environment, and a description of the measures that must be taken to avoid, reduce or compensate for those effects. Because developers have the best knowledge of the nature of their proposal, they have the responsibility of gathering the information and compiling the EIA. The decision-making authorities who have the power of giving consent to the developers plans have the responsibility of setting standards for approval or disapproval and ensuring that the developers EIA complies with the law. Further, they are obligated, by statute, to incorporate the EIA into their decision-making process. Also, Article 10 of the Directive states that the authorities must respect existing regulations and practices regarding industrial and commercial secrecy. Finally, the Directive envisions an active role for the public. In addition to supplying the decision-makers with information regarding the impact a project will have on the local environment, the public may have an opportunity to suggest alternatives and to pursue judicial action in order to request a review of consent. Further particularities of public participation and involvement are to be determined by the individual Member States. 2.1.2.4. The National Defense Project Exception to Directive 85/337/EEC The effectiveness of the Directive in preventing environmental harms is undercut by the exception it gives to national defense projects. It is reasonable to infer that this exception reflects two assumptions. The first assumption, explicitly mentioned in the Directive, is that national legislative processes will ensure that defense projects comply with the Directive. No rationale is provided for this assumption except for the implied reasoning that national legislators share the concerns of the Directive and are able to guide national legislation accordingly. The second assumption appears to be that the confidentiality of Member States national security matters would be compro

Gender Variation of Health Awareness of Adolescents in India

Gender Variation of Health Awareness of Adolescents in India Evaluation of gender variation in health awareness of Adolescent age groups in rural India Introduction World Health Organization (WHO) defines adolescence as the period between 10 and 19 years of age. During this period, they have to face a lot of changes which may include physical, mental, emotional or psychological changes. Yet they are the once whose health is neglected the most, especially that of female adolescent group. [1] Health awareness not only includes the awareness for infections, diseases or disorders but also health related topics like physiological changes, psychological changes, hormonal changes, importance of exercise to stay fit, time for entertainment to stay active and happy etc. Adolescents in rural areas are often devoid of health care facilities and tends to fall sick more often. Both genders faces different types of problems. They even get addicted to un-healthy activities due to lack of awareness and peer pressure.   Government of India has implemented many schemes for the spread of health awareness, but due to unknown reasons, it is not yet uniform among both the genders. If they are aware of health issues surrounding them, they can fight or prevent them and can improve their lives. Females health has been always neglected in rural India and now as to be prioritised because not only they support family by sharing the economic burden but they also take care of the entire family. In order to share all responsibilities both males and females have to be fit and that should start from the very beginning, right after birth. With implementation of new schemes and involvement of latest technology like internet; health awareness is improving[2] The teachers also teach them the benefits of health exercise and the requirement of time for recreational activities so that they can live a happy life. Various studies and survey have been conducted before but none showed the difference of health awareness between males and females of adolescent group. So we conducted this study to access the gender variation in health awareness in adolescent age group [15-19 years]. Their answers to the questionnaire can help us to understand the awareness of health in rural areas and we could bring further changes or implement new plans for spreading health awareness especially if one of the gender is lacking behind in one area. Material and Methods The present study was conducted as a cross-sectional study in September, 2014 at a local school in Nhava village, Raigad District in Maharashtra State, India. A well-structured questionnaire was distributed randomly to 102 high school students which included 60 males and 42 females between 15 to 19 to evaluate gender variation in health awareness and attitude towards awareness of side effects of tobacco consumption leading to oral or lung cancer, Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STD) and its transmission route, reaction on stress situations, knowledge of body mass index and ill effects of being malnourished, importance of having breakfast and in between meals with time for exercise and recreational activities, evaluating depression by asking mood changes. Their family type, number of members and average family income, per capita income were also found out. They were asked if they suffered from any other disorders or diseases. The required official permission to select and collect the relevant data from selected subjects was solicited and obtained from the Principal of the respective school. There were 13 questions and the questionnaire was collected on the spot from participants after explaining them the importance of study and obtaining their oral consent. Writing names on the form was optional and was informed that their identity will be kept hidden in all ways possible if they chose to write their names. The survey was carried out in their school timings and free periods. Inclusion Criteria All Students between 15-19 years Exclusion Criteria Students out of target i.e. above 20 years of age and below 15 years Who did not wanted to be a part of the survey Statistical analysis The data were entered into the computer (Microsoft Office, Excel) and were subjected to statistical analysis using the statistical package SPSS version 19. Results In the present study, we got 102 samples out of which 60 were males and 42 were females having 41.18 percentage of females and 58.82% of males. Also the ages ranged from 15-19. Most number of the students were in 17th year. Breakfast Everyday In between meals 2-3 hours (Table 1) Here we noticed that only 69% Females said that they were able to have breakfast as compared to 81.7% Males. Values are given in Table 1. n=Number, %= percentage Sex Breakfast everyday In between meals every 2-3 hours Yes Not able to have Total N % N % n % F 29 69.0 13 31.0 42 100.0 M 49 81.7 11 18.3 60 100.0 Total 78 76.5 24 23.5 102 100.0 Table 1 Time for Exercise Recreation ( Table 2) We noticed that 57.1% females here just said that they are able to do exercise and spare some time for recreation as compared to 80% approval from the males regarding the same. Sex Time for exercise and recreation Yes No Total N % n % n % F 24 57.1 18 42.9 42 100.0 M 48 80.0 12 20.0 60 100.0 Total 72 70.6 30 29.4 102 100.0 (Table 2) Consume Tobacco in any form or any other substance abuse (Table 3) It is interesting to see that only 5 males used to consume tobacco in cigarettes form which is 4.90%. Females denied taking any tobacco in any form. The values are depicted in table 3 Sex Consume tobacco in any form or any other substance abuse Yes No Total N % n % n % F 0 .0 42 100.0 42 100.0 M 5 8.3 55 91.7 60 100.0 Total 5 4.90 97 85.10 102 100.0 Table 3 Awareness of the side effects of taking Tobacco in any form (Table 4) Here we noticed that Females are more aware of the side effects of taking tobacco. Their awareness rate is 95.2% as compared to 78.3% of Males. The values are depicted in table 4. Sex Awareness of side effects regarding tobacco Substance abuse Yes (Aware) No Total N % n % n % F 40 95.2 2 4.8 42 100.0 M 47 78.3 13 21.7 60 100.0 Total 87 85.3 15 14.7 102 100.0 Table 4 Awareness of STDs at least one route of spread (Table 5) Mostly everyone knows about STD and its of route of spread. More details are depicted in table 5. Sex Awareness of STD Yes No Total N % n % n % F 42 100.0 0 .0 42 100.0 M 58 98.04 2 1.96 60 100.0 Total 100 98.04 2 1.96 102 100.0 Table 5 BMI Status Awareness to ill effects of malnourishment (Table 6-8) BMI of the study subject was calculated by using the formula weight (kg)/ height2 (m2). For grading proposed criteria of BMI for Asians (Choo V 2002) and CDC (2010) was adopted. We noticed that females tend to be more underweight as compared to males. Males being more prone to obesity at this age. The mean BMI for females was 20.41 Sex BMI Status Normal Obese Over Weight Underweight Total N % N % n % n % n % F 29 69.0 0 .0 1 2.4 12 28.6 42 100.0 M 42 70.0 1 1.7 2 3.3 15 25.0 60 100.0 Total 71 69.6 1 0.98 3 2.94 27 26.47 102 100.0 Table 6 Sex Statistic Std. Error BMI F Mean 20.417341 .4574878 95% Confidence Interval for Mean Lower Bound 19.493425 Upper Bound 21.341256 Std. Deviation 2.9648599 Minimum 15.0597 Maximum 26.3146 M Mean 21.016615 .4933969 95% Confidence Interval for Mean Lower Bound 20.029330 Upper Bound 22.003900 Std. Deviation 3.8218361 Minimum 16.0231 Maximum 40.4281 Table 7 BMI values are depicted in Table 7 We also asked them if they knew the ill-effects of being malnourished? Almost 90% males knew the ill effects. Whereas 78.6% Females knew about the ill effects. The details are in  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   table 8. Sex Aware of ill-effects of being malnourished? Yes No Total N % n % N % F 33 78.6 9 21.4 42 100 M 54 90.0 6 10.0 60 100 Total 87 85.29 15 14.70 102 100 Table 8 Mood Study duration in a day (Table 9 10) We also asked whether they stay happy content always or unhappy and grumpy or scared or always angry. Most of them answered that they stay happy always. Most also mentioned that they study for 1-2 hours daily. Sex Mood Always Happy Content Always unhappy Always Scared Alway angry Total n % n % n % n % n % F 37 88.1 4 9.5 1 2.4 0 .0 42 100.0 M 55 91.7 2 3.3 2 3.3 1 1.7 60 100.0 Total 92 90.19 6 5.88 3 2.94 1 .98 102 100.0 Table 9 Sex Average hours of study per day 1-2 hours 2-4 hours 4-6 hours Total n % n % n % n % F 25 59.5% 14 33.3% 3 7.1% 42 100.0% M 41 68.3% 17 28.3% 2 3.3% 60 100.0% Total 66 64.70% 31 30.39% 5 4.90% 102 100.0% Table 10 Reaction on Stress or Depression (Table 11) We noticed that almost half of them prefer to talk to their friends when they are depressed. Few females do cry or starve as well. Sex Reaction on being stressed / depression Be alone / lock yourself Cry / Starve Call your friend Talk to your elders Total n % n % N % n % n % F 8 19.0 7 16.7 18 42.9 9 21.4 42 100.0% M 15 25.0 5 8.3 28 46.7 12 20.0 60 100.0% Total 23 22.54 12 11.76 46 45.09 21 20.58 102 100.0% Table 11 We also asked for any other diseases or disorder which they may be suffering from. 2 of males said that they are suffering from Diabetes and 1 female had ulcers.   We also took family history which included number of family members, earning members, total family income per month and level of education. Discussion Adolescents are the future of the country. As they reach puberty, they face a lot of changes in many ways which includes physiological, hormonal, emotional and mental. Females tends to receive more challenges because of the physiological and hormonal changes occurring with the start of their puberty. [3] With the rise of menstrual cycle they often tend to get more depressed before getting adjusting to it. BMI Importance Awareness of malnourishment Females may face malnourishment due to male children being given priority to eat first [4] or may be due to body weight consciousness leading to disorders like bullaemia or Anorexia nervosa   or depression. [5] Dr. Shah had conducted a study on nutrional assessment of adolescent girls in karamsad and had found out that only 8% girls were overweight while 63.2% were of normal weight and 28.5% were underweight. While 23.4% boys were overweight and only 21.2 % were underweight.[6] The present study showed that 28.6% females were underweight as compared to 25% males. 2.4% females were overweight whereas we did not find any obese female during the study. 4% males were above normal stage which includes overweight and obese. Almost 90% males knew the ill effects. Whereas 78.6% Females knew about the ill effects. STD Awarness its route of transmission In later years of adolescent age, teenagers especially males tends to get physically attracted and intimated with the opposite sex and the risk of contacting STDs rises if proper protection not used.7]   Dr. Kotecha had conducted two studies in urban and rural areas respectively, amongst school going students regarding reproductive health awareness and found out that in both rural and urban areas; about one-third of the boys and one-fourth of the girls knew about contraception. Two-thirds of boys and girls had information of HIV/AIDS, and about half of them correctly knew various modes of transmission of HIV in both urban and rural areas. Majority of the adolescent were even ready to visit the Adolescent Friendly clinic if there was any in near-by areas. [8,9] The awareness regarding modes of transmission of HIV/AIDS was found to be higher among boys as compared to girls which contradicts the present study. [10] The present study showed that all females knew about STDs and at least one route of spread as compared to 98.04% males. The contradiction might be due to improvement of health awareness in recent times. Tobacco Consumption Along with rise in STDs prevalence and incidence there is a rise in increase of cigarette smoking among adolescent age [11] andstudents are vulnerable to tobacco addiction, especially males.[12]This can have harmful effect. A study conducted in state of Gujarat, India, showed that there has been increasing trend of smoking cigarettes at younger which is a matter of great concern13]. Early use of tobacco smoking may lead to many harmful effects like hypertension, lung cancer and may even lead to end stage organ in later years of life[14]. A study conducted by Sharma Et Al showed 18.4% males have tried cigarettes or bidis at least once in life time compared to 11% females in adolescent age group. Tobacco use was much higher among the adolescent aged 16-19 group than those in the age group of 14-15 years. Tobacco use was appreciably higher among the males (23.8%) than the females adolescent age group (14.9%), (P=0.016).The prevalence rate of current smoking is 7.1%[15]. The present study showed that 4.9% males has consumed tobacco in any form in a rural area which leads to a conclusion that the tobacco consumption might be at a larger scale in urban areas. All females denied taking tobacco in form. It also noticed that females are more aware of the side effects of taking tobacco. Their awareness rate was 95.2% as compared to 78.3% of Males. Also adolescents are at increased risk of getting stress related depression. [16]They are easily influenced by changes around them which affects their biological, emotional, cognitive, and social functions. Unhealthy and anti-social behaviours are manufactured in these years but if stopped, can be moulded back or may change permanently. [17]These anti-social changes are common in males as compared to females Conclusion: There are many differences in health awareness between males and females of the adolescent age group. We need to decrease the bridge between them and for that we need to change some of our health policies. In some areas females have better health awareness like awareness in STD spread and side effects of taking tobacco in any form, whereas males have better knowledge in understanding the importance of taking proper breakfast and in taking some time off for entertainment. Along with that they also know the ill effects of  Ã‚   malnourishment. If we need our youth to progress at a faster rate, we need them to be healthy at mind, body and free from diseases. For that, we need to inculcate health awareness in both genders and should decrease the bridge between the awareness. Limitation future perspective: Sample size of study was small due to limited number of students in the school. In future, we want to study on more than 500 students of multi-schools in more than 5 districts involving rural areas. References Mahajan P, Sharma N. Awareness level of Adolescent Girls Regarding HIV/AIDS (A comparative study of rural and urban areas of Jammu) J Hum Ecol. 2004;17:313-4. Gray NJ, Klein JD. Adolescents and the internet: health and sexuality information. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol. 2006;18(5):519-24. doi: 10.1097/01.gco.0000242954.32867.76. Goldenring J. A Review provided by VeriMed Healthcare Network, Medline plus. 2004 Borooah VK. Gender bias among children in India in their diet and immunization against disease. Soc Sci Med. 2004;59:1719-31. Reijone JH, Pratt HD, Patel DR, Greydanus DE. Eating disorders in the adolescent population: An overview. J Adolesc Res. 2003;18:209-22. Hasmukh, S., Wasim, S., Singh, S. K. (2012). Are Indian adolescent girl students more conscious about their body image than their colleague boys? National Journal of Community Medicine, 3(2), 344-347. Weinstock H, Berman S, Cates W. Sexually transmitted diseases in American youth: Incidence and prevalence estimates. Perspect Sex Reprod Health 2004366-10.10 Kotecha PV, Patel SV, Mazumdar VS, et al. Reproductive health awareness among urban school going adolescents in Vadodara city. Indian Journal of Psychiatry. 2012;54(4):344-348. doi:10.4103/0019-5545.104821. Kotecha PV, Patel S, Baxi RK, et al. Reproductive health awareness among rural school going adolescents of Vadodara district. Indian Journal of Sexually Transmitted Diseases. 2009;30(2):94-99. doi:10.4103/0253-7184.62765.

Innocent: Confession of a Welfare Mother Essay -- welfere, poverty, lif

Innocent: Confessions of a welfare mother is a memoir that defies the stigma that comes along with welfare and poverty. It outlines the trials and tribulations of a single Caucasian mother and her ability to maintain her family. Forced to make pivotal decisions and keep the best interest of her family in mind, she must take welfare handouts to get through her financial struggles. This memoir is a way to highlight the obstacles it takes to keep a stable household and get by at the worst times in a single mothers life. At a time of racism and despair, this single mother was able to find a place to call home and give her family a comfortable life. Barbara Morrison, an educated woman who grew up in a nuclear family home, their home included â€Å"[her] parents and children living in one household† (Moore& Asay, 2013). They lived in Roland Park in Baltimore Maryland. Living the â€Å"Average† lifestyle in her parents’ home she felt as if she were an outsider. Morrison decided to go to Western Maryland and pursue her collegiate education. She could not take the racism that went on in 1970 and decided to uproot her life for the better. Worcester, Massachusetts is where Morrison’s life would further take its course, she finally felt at home in this city. Morrison met her closest friend Jill who would also be an important benefactor in Barbra’s life; the first thing that she explained to Morrison was â€Å"The vast majority of people on welfare were white and lived in rural areas, not inner cities† (Morrison,2011).Morrison did not understand this until she was faced with the reality of pove rty. In order to survive she needed to bring in resources, which are â€Å"anything identified to meet an existing or future need† (Moore& Asay, 2013).In Morrison’s case ... ...o get Welfare assistance was a smart decision, but while on welfare she could have been in search for a better job. She didn’t want to take any time away from her children, but it may have been necessary in order to give them an even better life. Morrison did not weigh in the fact that she could have lived even more comfortably, having a well-paying job. When deciding to get welfare, another alternative could have been to teach in a place where her sons could also attend. Morrison was a good care provider for her children, but if she would have altered her ultimate plan slightly, it could have changed her life in a tremendous way. Works Cited Morrison , B. (2011). Innocent: Confession of a Welfare Mother . (1st ed.). Baltimore,MD: Apprentice House Moore, T. J,. & Asay, A. M. (2013). Family Resource Management. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications inc.

Marlows Assessment of Africa in Conrads Heart of Darkness :: Heart Darkness essays

Marlow's Assessment of Africa in Heart of Darkness   Ã‚   Marlow's assessment of the African wilderness in the beginning of the story is like that of something that tempts him and his fellow explorers to Africa. When Marlow says, "And as I looked at the map of it in a shop-window, it fascinated me as a snake would a bird - silly little bird" (Conrad, Longman 2196). If we take note of the phrase "silly little bird" it may be noted that the Marlow is comparing Britain to that silly little bird. It could be that he felt Britain's occupancy of Africa was nothing more than his own country falling into a trap. It was not a designed trap but one of destiny. It was his countries destiny to fall prey to the allures of that Dark Continent. Millions would die in the attempt to make monetary gains while occupying Africa.    When Marlow mentions "the whited sepulcher" he could be referring again to his homeland, and when he makes this statement he may be referring to the fact that Britain has sent many of its people to be buried in that deep and mysterious place referred to as the Congo. According to YourDictionary .com, the word sepulcher means, "to bury" (YourDicitonary.com). In combination with the word white, referring to his Caucasian race, could Marlow be referring to the death of his fellow countrymen, or could he be referring to the death of a continent, Africa, at the hands of the white race invading her? These thoughts may both have validity when deciphering this text. When Marlow describes the, "Two women, one fat and the other slim, sat on straw-bottomed chairs, knitting black wool" he may be describing the future of two races combined in utter disarray in Africa. He may be using the "black wool" as something akin to insight into what future had in store for millions of people both black and white in the Congo (Longman 2197). The "black wool" may be referring to black shards for covering the dead. It may also be an idea of not human death but the death of an area such as the Congo. He may have been sensing that the influx of his own countrymen may be taking away the spirit of that wild and forbidden Congo. Marlow's utterance of, "guarding the door of Darkness, knitting black wool as for a warm pall, one introducing, introducing continuously to the unknown, the other scrutinizing the cherry foolish faces with unconcerned old eyes" could give more clues to Marlow's characterization of the African wilderness (Longman 2198).

Tourism in Thailand :: Papers

Tourism in Thailand As we enter a new millenium the post-colonial nations in the world are still searching for ways to compete in an increasingly globalized, consumption driven economic environment. Many developing countries have speculated that Tourism is an effective catalyst for development as well as increased international understanding. Thailand, who has embraced tourism as the key to its modernization strategy, has been hailed by many as a paradigm for success. Over the past twenty years Thailand has enjoyed one of the fastest economic growth rates of any developing country. This rapid progress has allowed Thailand to emerge as an economic leader in the Third world. The $4 billion a year in tourism revenue is the core support of the Thai economy (Bishop, p. VI). Thai officials have attributed the success of the tourism industry to the "many attractions located in various parts of the country" as well as "the uniqueness of the Thai people" --- "their friendliness and hospitality (Bishop, p. 6 7)." However the Thai government has failed to recognize the contributions of sex tourism which is estimated to generate about $1.5 billion every year, according to Professor Krikiat Phiapatserithan of Thammasat University (World congress, regional profiles, p. 3). Thailand's failure to recognize the sex tourism is reflective of the discourse used by the worldwide tourism industry to analyze the industry's success. From the standpoint of the tourism industry the success of tourism is directly related only to economic factors, anything else is seen as unnecessary. It is in the best interest of tourism corporations and the countries that are dependent on tourism to discourage the circulation of information regarding any of the potential negative effects related to tourism. The censorship of information by these entities has caused much of the general public to be ignorant of the adverse consequences of the mass tourist industry in Thailand. The purpose of this paper is to give an overview of the sex tourism, using Thailand as the basis of my investigation. I will begin by shedding light on the complex social and economic factors that has formed the modern sex industry of Thailand. Then I will link the damaging effects to the Thailand's cultural values and quality of life to the emergence of child sex tourism, which in recent years has immerged as a significant contributor of tourist revenue.

Nursing Theorist Grid Essay

1. Theorist Selected: Florence Nightingale born on 5/12/1820, a writer, a philosopher, a theorist, a â€Å"reformer, a statistician, an administrator, a researcher† (Attewell, 1998), an educator, and a nurse leader. 2. Description of key points of the theory: Nightingale was one of the first theorist to connect the environment with the patient’s well being. Nightingale believed a persons health depended on their environment and that patients will be compliant to treatment because they wanted to be cared for and be healthy. Nightingale believed (as cited by Alligood, 2010, p.101), â€Å"that the person was a holistic individual and thus had a spiritual dimension. She believed nursing was a spiritual calling, and with that belief she assumed that nurses could help those clients who were in spiritual distress.† She believed that the way the home, community or hospital room was kept affected the patient’s healing process. She created â€Å"13 cannons: Ventilation and warmth, light, cleanliness of rooms and walls, health of houses, noise, bed and bedding, personal cleanliness, variety, chattering hopes and advices, taking food, what food, petty management and observation of the sick† (Alligood, 2010, p.101-102) that help aid in the care of the patient and the environment to help promote good health. She also believed that nurses should be caring in nature and want to care for the ill and not for personal gain. Nightingale promoted a well balanced diet to help the patient with the healing process. 3. Theory’s historical background: Nightingale developed her passion young in life. Cook wrote (as cited by Selanders, 2010) â€Å"She records in her diary an interaction with God at age 16 when He â€Å"called her to His service†. Nightingale clarified (as cited by Alligood, 2010, p.98), â€Å"nursing knowledge is distinct from medical knowledge.† Nursing focuses on the patient and the environment to promote health where medicine focuses on disease process and medicinal use for health. In 1854-60 Nightingale cared for the wounded soldiers in the Crimean War with â€Å"emphasis on hygiene† (Attewell, 1998). During her time in the Crimean war she persuaded the education of army soldiers and doctors, which then lead to an opening of a pathology lab. She was an advocate for nursing education and clinical experience. â€Å"In 1860 founded 1st program to educate nurses in St. Thomas Hospital in London† (Alligood, 2010, p.98). In 1882 she wrote 2 articles â€Å"nurses, training of†, â€Å"nursing the sick†, they were in reference to how nursing school should be training. Let us not forget how she help analyze data she collected. â€Å"Statistics were a vital component of Nightingale’s systemic approach to health care† (McDonald, 2010). Complete the following grid based on the selected theorist information. Define each term according to the selected theorist. Explain how the selected theorist’s approach to each element of the metaparadigm applies to the following: Nursing practice Nursing education Nursing research Term Definition Applied to Nursing Practice Applied to Nursing Education Applied to Nursing Research Person According to Alligood (2010, p98), â€Å"most of Nightingale’s writings refer to the person as the one who is receiving care, she did believe that the person is a dynamic and complex being†. The one whose health is affected by the environment. The patient allows the nurse to provide care and help promote a healthier environment. McDonald noted (as cited by Hegge, 2013) â€Å"Nightingale realized that working-class women needed education to become competent nurses, so she began designing educational elements that would later be used in the Nightingale School of Nursing.† Nightingale’s research and data collection was done for the benefit of the patient. Creating evidence based practices. Health According to Alligood (2010, p 98) Nightingale wrote, â€Å"Health is not only to be well, but to be able to use well every power we have.†Ã‚  Nightingale created the 13 canons to help promote health. Getting patients back to their functioning status before they fell ill. Nightingale promoted patient health education, especially in the young women so her children could be healthy. Nightingale statistical expertise help make changes to improve a patients care and overall health. Nursing Whall noted (as cited by Alligood, 2010, p. 99)â€Å"Nightingale saw nursing as the â€Å"science of environmental management.† Nightingale set four steps for nursing process: observation of patient’s health status, identification what needs changing in the environment, implementation of nursing care plan, reassessment of patient’s health status with documentation of all steps. Nightingale advocated for nursing education. Schools taught nurses how to observe a patient, how to alter the environment and implement changes. We report back to the physician from our assessments and reassessments. Nightingale had the hospital collecting data report data such as mortality and length of stay. The data was analyzed and then changes in practices were implemented. Environment Selanders stated (as cited by Alligood, 2010, p98) that â€Å"environment can be defined as anything that can be manipulated to place a patient in the best  possible condition for nature to act†. Placing the patient in the appropriate environment. For example, Creating a pleasant, calm, soothing and quiet environment in a nursery so babies can rest and stay healthy without distress. Schools created to help educate the future nurses. In those teachings were the â€Å"how to change, alter, or improve the patient’s immediate environment. Nightingale’s collected statistics on the environment in which the soldiers dwelled in and analyzed it creating changes. Reference: Alligood, M.R. (2010). Nursing theory: Utilization & application (4th ed.). Maryland Heights, MO: Mosby Elsevier. pgs 98. Retreived from the UOP ebook collection. Attewell, A. (1998). Florence nightingale (1820-1910). Prospects, 28(1), 151-166. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02737786. Retrieved from the UOP online library Selanders, L. C. (2010, March). The Power of Environmental Adaptation: Florence Nightingale’s Original Theory for Nursing Practice. Journal of Holistic Nursing, 28(1), 81-88. doi:10.1177/0898010109360257. Retrieved from the UOP online library Hegge, M. (2013, July). Nightingale’s Environmental Theory. Nursing Science Quarterly, 26(3), 211-219. doi:10.1177/0894318413489255. Retrieved from the UOP online library McDonald, L. (2010, March). Florence Nightingale Passionate Statistician. Journal of Holistic Nursing, 28(1), 92-98. doi:10.1177/0898010109358769. Retrieved from the UOP online library

Vitamin C Practical Experiment Write Up

Based on knowledge already at hand, My hypothesis will be that freshly squeezed juice will contain more vitamin C compared to juices that are from concentrate and that juice from lemons will contain more vitamin C due to their acidity. Variables; Variables such as temperature could affect the results that are collected, as much as can be done to control the temperature to make the results accurate will be done, holding samples with hands can increase the temperature slightly so they will be handled by the lip of the vial and placed into a rack. When testing samples multiple times I will ensure that the equipment cleaned and dried or if possible new as the pH of water might affect the reaction of DCPIP and ascorbic acid, water can also affect the results depending on whether it is ‘hard water' or ‘soft water', hard water contains more mineral and more chlorine is present. Measuring will be as close to as possible accurate, this will include re-measuring samples. I will be measuring the amount of juice sample solution it takes to decolourise 1cm of DCPIP, first I will use a controlled sample of 1% vitamin C to decolourise the DCPIP, and with this I can compare results from the other juice samples. The measurements will be taken with a pipette and released into the DCPIP 1ml at a time, each time 1ml is released it will be shaken to allow a fair mix of solution, and this will be repeated on till decolourisation. Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid) has a pH of under 4-5 when diluted with water DCPIP, 2,6-dichlorophenolindophenol, which is a dye used to monitor light reaction in photosynthesis Apparatus & Chemicals; Pipette Fruit Juice Samples DCPIP 1% Solution Test tubes Test tube rack Burette (Possibly) Glass Rod (Possibly) I have decided to use test tubes because they provide a clear sight into the experiment at hand, they are also smaller then Pyrex beakers which would spread the solution over a large surface where as a test tube would make it easier to establish decolourisation. Pipettes are a fast way to measure the solution with a limited amount of time, it is a suitable and vital piece of apparatus however there might be a probably with used pipettes as they can have dents from previous experiments and would only be accurate to around 0.0ml-0.2ml when measuring solutions. A burette would allow an accurate measure of how much solution has been added into the DCPIP, probably a greater accuracy then using a pipette. A glass rod would allow a fair mixing of the solution but the effects on the results are unknown. Safety; Take care of glassware. Sanitise experimental area after. Wear eye protection at all times.. Care when handling juice samples or chemicals as they may stain. Do not drink juice samples as dangerous chemicals may be present after experimentation. Pre-Experiment Method; The method I will be conducting is simple. I will measure 1% DCPIP 1cm(3) from a beaker to a pipette, with another pipette I will add the 1% vitamin C solution which is the control of the experiment 1cm(3) at a time to a test tube, each time 1cm(3) is added, I will gently stir the test tube to make sure then the reaction takes place. I will repeat this on till the DCPIP solution is decolourised. To get a fair and accurate result I will repeat this 3 times and then average the results. Outliers will be excluded to keep the test accurate. The samples will be kept in a test tube rack to compare different colours. The next juice two sample will be tested with the same amount of DCPIP, first placed into a test tube via pipette then another unused Pipette will extract the juice sample and will be added into the DCPIP 1ml at a time then stirred gently and this will continue on till the DCPIP is decolourised. The time allocated during this experiment is 1/2 hour. Accuracy could be improved but due to this some apparatus and time will be put aside in order to complete the experiment There are some ethical issues with testing these chemicals and releasing them into the sewer as they are not helpful to the environment due to their pH, care will be taken so that any DCPIP and Vitamin C is not wasted and only what is needed is used. Results; Once all of the data was collected, It was input into the table below, It shows the amount of juice required to decolourise the DCPIP, 3 tests were conducted and from that you can then work out the average with a formula to get the average, the average can be used to conclude a fair result from all 3 of the trials. Vol. Of Juice Required to Decolourise 1cm(3) of 1% DCPIP Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Average Vitamin C. Content Vitamin C Solution 6ml 7ml 9ml 7.3ml 0.13g Pure Orange Juice 14ml 15ml 18ml 15.6ml 0.06g Jiff 5.5ml 5ml 6ml 5.5ml 0.18g These results show that the juice sample that contains the most Vitamin C was the Jiff, with an average of 5.5ml to turn the DCPIP decolourised compared to the 15.6ml of pure orange Juice. The Vitamin C. Solution took 7.3ml to decolourise the DCPIP which was 1.8ml more than Jiff, This suggests to me that Jiff contains less water than the Vitamin C. 1% Solution did. With the average, I then calculated the Content of Vitamin C in each of the samples by Dividing them by the 1ml of 1% DCPIP Solution which gave the sum then converted to grams. These results prove my hypothesis in that freshly squeezed fruit will contain more vitamin C, this is because it will not have been watered down by manufacturers for a higher quantity. The results also prove my hypothesis is right that lemons contain more Vitamin C. Due to their acidity which is the sign of ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) and their low pH levels. This line graph shows the plot of the tests carried out. From this we can see that for pure orange juice and Vitamin C samples that there is a steady rise from test 1 to test 3, this could be due to a number of factors that I will include in my limitations, However the Jiff tests shows to be accurate and consistent from test 1 to test 3. There is a 4ml difference from test 1 to test 3 in the pure orange juice tests. There is a 2ml difference from test 1 to test 2 in the Vitamin C 1% Solution Test. This graph also shows standard deviation, from the bars we can see the average of the test, it measures the spread of data from the mean. The results conclude that the deviation is a Low standard deviation because the valves are not spread out so much. The equation for the standard deviation used is; The graph shows that on all samples tested, Post-Experiment Method, Limitations and Variables; As planned the measurements of the juice solutions were accurately measured and did not obscure sight in the pipette, However the DCPIP was to a degree harder to measure due to the darkness of the solution, it covered the pipette in a dark blue colour and was hard to tell where and how much solution was being measured. The experiment took slightly longer due to this as I had to wait for the solution to settle into the solution. As this was the first time carrying out an experiment like this, it was unknown that the 1% Vitamin C solution Control would turn into a brown colour when decolourised, Although this happened I still recorded the results and then continue to see if any difference would appear but after 5 minutes of no change they were placed into a test tube rack to be observed later on and compared with the other trials, the result was that they did turn brown and that was expected to be the end of the trial. The Pure Orange Juice also produced different than expected appearance, the solution did decolourise the solution but it turned to a yellow colour which was the original of the juice sample. One problem that I was faced with was the limited amount of apparatus, I ended up having to clean them with tap water, they were dried but to a certain extent, the pH of the water could affect the experiments outcome, however all the of solutions would have had some water in them so this shouldn't affect the results in a significant way. Post-Experiment Method, Limitations and Variables-Continued; Other problem in the experiment that I later picked up on from observation was that the DCPIP and Juice solutions' were left open meaning that oxidation could affect the results which is a loss of electrons and a gain in hydrogen, this will cause the DCPIP to turn blue again, as Vitamin C is a reducing agent it adds electrons therefore its used in this experiment because it will change colour. The limitation of this experiment is that it was only repeated three times due to the amount of time available, more results would have given better accuracy in results and given me the chance to spot outliers in the experiment. We also do not know if Vitamin C is lost during ageing or through heat treatment which often products go through to ensure that it's free from harmful bacteria. One improvement that could be made to the experiment is the equipment, having a larger choice to use from, and enough so that other factors like water don't come into play. One modification that could used is that now we know that after a certain colour in the process of decolourisation we know that the trial is finished therefore saving us time for something else. Another Improvement is to be more careful with the juice samples and to keep them contained so that they are not affected by the elements. Summary; In this experiment, I learned that freshly squeezed orange juice will contain more vitamin C then juices from concentrate and that lemon contain more vitamin C then oranges. The experiment carried out was to measure the content of Vitamin C in the selected fruit samples, from the results I can conclude that the results were accurate, reliable and precise therefore allowing me to state this conclusion and to prove my hypothesis right!